The final paper from a student in the International Commercial Dispute Resolution course at New York Law School discusses the present state of commercial mediation, conciliation and arbitration in selected jurisdictions in Africa. The author also identifies certain political and commercial attributes that are missing in the region and that, she argues, will be necessary to develop in order for interest-based dispute resolution to take hold and provide the business efficacies of which it is capable.
The topic is ADR in Africa, and the author is Jasmine Dickerson.
Overview of Commercial Alternative Dispute Resolution in Africa
This paper presents an overview of the arbitration mechanisms for resolving commercial disputes on the continent of Africa. It will take a look at the various types of ADR on the continent, the historical context for commercial ADR in Africa, as well as examining several country specific and regional mechanisms for resolving commercial disputes currently in existence. It will conclude that structures currently exist, however improvement, time, and legitimacy in the region is necessary for ADR to truly be effective in the region.
By Jasmine C. Dickerson
Introduction
Alternative Dispute Resolution (“ADR”) consists of a range of processes used as an alternative means of resolving disputes between two or more parties. It has been highlighted as a more efficient way of doing business and resolving conflict. Since disputes are an inevitable product of some business transactions, resolutions of such disputes can become the difference between a continuing productive commercial relationship and termination of that relationship. ADR has been useful in resolving commercial disputes by providing speedier enforceable decisions through arbitration, mediation, and conciliation mechanisms. Due to increasing domestic and foreign investment in Africa, there is an increased pressure for sufficient, fair, and organized ADR organizations within the continent. Foreign investors tend to have warranted suspicion about African national judicial systems, which are often beset by corruption, long and costly procedures, and lack of efficient enforcement of the law. [1] Companies, governments, private and non private actors are looking for destinations within the continent that provide procedures for resolving commercial disputes. “When operating a business in Africa or in connection with an African State, there are a wide range of laws and practices that likely apply which can impact business activity. Businesses entering into contracts with States or other companies in Africa must typically consider the law applicable to the contractual relationship and the law applicable to the arbitration proceedings foreseen in the contract in question before a dispute arises.” [2] This paper presents an overview of the arbitration mechanisms for resolving commercial disputes on the continent of Africa. It will take a look at the various types of ADR on the continent, the historical context for commercial ADR in Africa, as well as examine several country specific and regional mechanisms for resolving commercial disputes currently in existence. It will conclude that structures currently exist, however improvement, time, and legitimacy in the region is necessary for ADR to truly be effective in the region.
Different Types of ADR available
There are several different methods of ADR in Africa countries. The most prevalent are conciliation and mediation. Often used in labor disputes, conciliation and mediation both look to maintain existing business relationship and to rekindle a lost balance of power between the parties. Arbitration is used in disputes as a last ditch effort before litigation becomes a must. Below is an in-depth description of the various types of ADR available.
Negotiation is a voluntary and informal process in which the parties seek out the best options for each other. The result is usually a mutually acceptable agreement. In this private process there is usually no limit to the argument, evidence, and interests that may be brought to the bargaining table. This allows commercial disputes to be resolved without a third party, thus providing for a more confidential agreement.
Mediation is usually sought out when parties to a dispute are ready to discuss the issues openly and honestly. It is an ADR method where a neutral and impartial third party mediator facilitates dialogue in a structured multi stage process to help parties reach a conclusive and mutually satisfactory agreement. A mediator cannot impose a solution on the parties as a conciliator and arbitrator can. A mediator works together with the parties, its priority is to facilitate the parties’ own discussion and representation of their own interests, and guide them to their own suitable solution- a good common solution that is fair, durable, and workable. The parties play an active role in mediation, identifying interests, suggesting possible solutions, and making decisions concerning proposals made by other parties. “A successful mediation affords the parties an opportunity to generate a creative solution to their dispute in a manner that focuses on the future and not the past. Its major benefits include that they control the process, choose their mediator and avoid trial.”[3] Mediation is usually looked at as a peaceful dispute resolution tool that is often used complementary to the existing court system and the arbitration.
Conciliation is often used when the parties of a dispute have the wiggle room to cure the breach or make up and salvage the relationship. A third party conciliator is appointed as an impartial person that assists the parties through the negotiation and then drafts a solution based on what they think to be a just compromise. Unlike arbitration the whole process is much less adversarial, in that the conciliator seeks to identify all the rights that have been violated or issues that have been breached and searches to find the optimal solution to cure the breach.. “In effect, the conciliator may be regarded as designer of the solution; this may be contrasted with meditation where the parties are guided to design their own solution.” [4] The conciliator plays a direct role in the resolution of the dispute and figures out the best solution for the parties and this becomes the drafted settlement.
Arbitration views the dispute as a legal analysis and seeks a solution based on entitlement and rights. It often “may ignore the interests and needs of an individual party and critically in international disputes, not embrace the cultural influences on the problem in hand.”[5] Like litigation, it is an adjudicative process whereby a single or panel of arbitrators imposes a settlement on the parties. Unlike litigation, it usually subject to confidentiality agreements between the arbitrator, the parties and the seat of the arbitration.
When looking at ADR, one must remember that dispute resolution was conceived as a mechanism outside the courts of law established by the State. Arbitration has fallen within the wide range of ADR methods that sometimes includes hybrid mechanisms like Con-Arb and Med-Arb, however one must not forget that in arbitration there will be a final and binding award and in the other forms there is no finality except with the consent of the parties. This is important when looking at how several African countries have decided to enact laws subject to arbitration and conciliation ADR methods if a dispute occurs.
Historical Context of Dispute Resolution on the Continent
Within the continent, there is an increase of ADR organizations both in specific countries as well as regional centers popping up which allows for ADR to take place where the current judicial system lacks the time and fairness. In West Africa alone, there are over 16 regional and local ADR centers serving investors and over 65 law firms offering ADR services. [6]ADR is not new to the area but has been around before colonial times however in a more local way. In Africa, they have “the luxury of learning from experiences in other jurisdictions. [They] do not have to go through all the growth pains of evolving an ADR system from scratch but can take what is relevant, adapt what is useful, build on what is vital and ignore what is inapplicable.” [7]
Alternative Dispute resolution is an age long cultural phenomenon in most African Countries. Reconciliation is the traditional means of solving disputes arising from a breach in a relationship between two or more parties. In fact, traditionally African societies have resolved disputes through the use of a negotiated settlement. Unfortunately, as these countries became colonized, the government controlled dispute resolution mechanisms replaced the old customary law systems. Some of the traditional dispute resolution mechanisms survived only as informal systems and as lower courts in the judicial hierarchy. [8] In the traditional setting, (villages, hamlets, settlements, and towns), dispute resolution is almost as old as the traditions and customs of the people. Customary law is generally known to be the accepted norm in a community; it is unwritten and one of its most commendable characteristics is its flexibility.
Resolution and reconciliation was and in some places still is major way of solving disputes under the indigenous system of governance. In Kenya, 51% of Kenyans prefer to report problems to community leaders rather than the police and 60% don’t ever use the courts.[9] For example, the role of arbitrator or conciliator was taken up by the elders or the chief and all resolutions were meant to maintain social cohesion in the village or settlement. “Any person who is concerned that a dispute between the parties threatened the peace of the community could initiate the process. In the process, parties have the opportunity to state their case and their expectation but the final decision is that of the elders. Customary arbitration is not private but is organized to socialize the whole society, therefore the community is present. Parties could arise from the whole process and maintain their relationship and where one party got an award the whole society was witness and saw to it that it was enforced. Social exclusion or ostracism was a potent sanction for any erring party therefore enforcement of an award was not a problem.” [10] This way of solving disputes showcases the ability for African countries to take hold of a traditional way of solving disputes and using it in a more directed and commercialized nature. Given that the term commercial “has a wide interpretation and includes ‘matters arising from all relationships of a commercial nature, whether contractual or not-including the simple supple or exchange of goods and services'”, one can see how even village relationships can benefit from ADR and can be incorporated on a small scale level in the continent. [11] In fact is already being seen in Uganda where the 1995 Constitution has incorporated traditional customary law into the trial process, by requiring that parties be subject to reconciliation in all matters handled by the judiciary involving commercial disputes, and the 2000 Arbitration and Conciliation Act allows for new judicial powers that can allow judges to submit cases to mediation for amicable resolution. [12]
Each of the ADR processes addressed herein, arbitration, mediation, negotiation, and conciliation, provides important benefits to parties and are seen as being complementary to the whole judicial process. However, conciliation represents the closes embodiment of traditional customary law in African societies. An example of this is seen in Benin, which has throughout the country specialized conciliation tribunals that are considered competent to hear almost all matters of disputes related to civil law. “Their records are transmitted to the court of first instance which either confirms the successful conciliation or assumes jurisdiction if the conciliation fails.” [13] If affirmed the conciliation record acquires the force of a final judgment and can only be contested to questions of law through an appeal to a higher Court. In this way Benin has mixed conciliation, arbitration and the judicial process in an integrative way that is quite exceptional. It also showcases the potential of the continent if allowed to evolve naturally.
Country Specific Alternative Dispute Resolution Services and Progress
The spectrum of ADR efforts in Africa range from highly advanced and complex: e.g. South Africa, Nigeria, and Egypt, to basic and industry specific: e.g. Benin. Several countries in the continent have taken initiative to develop ADR practices within their commercial industry. Some have even enacted legislation to establish ADR methods as a way of minimizing litigation in court. For instance, Tanzania has incorporated ADR into its legal system. Mozambique passed an Arbitration, Conciliation and Mediation Act that is compliant with WTO standards which legitimized non-court ADR. Its’ National Assembly also approved revisions to their commercial code which allows for resolution of business disputes through ADR. [14]These countries showcase the momentum that ADR is gaining in the region and how it can be incorporated in different ways. In fact, “Ghana’s legislation has implicit provisions for provisions for ADR when the need arises: The Courts Act of 1993 mandates the court, as institutions of justice, to adopt any ADR process that would suit the particular case in order to promote reconciliation.”[15] Below is an overview of the various ADR efforts by currently in progress in Cameroon, Mali, Senegal, and Kenya.
In Cameroon, it is normal for commercial institutions to use arbitration, conciliation and mediation. The government is prone to use arbitration and mediation as well. [16] The success of ADR is due to an established comprehensive network of ADR specialist trained by the successful Centre d’Arbitrage de Groupement Inter-patronal du Cameroon (“GICAM”). GICAM is a professional association that represents over 80% of the commercial enterprises that exist in Cameroon. The organization represents 192 enterprises in Cameroon, which has helped it reach the commercial sector. Based in Douala, the GICAM arbitration center provides arbitration services to enterprises and individuals in Cameroon and across the Central African region. Cameroon has begun expanding the use of ADR geographically by holding informational seminars and courses across the country with the help of the GICAM, NGO’s and the Ministry of Justice. [17]These seminars focus on arbitration procedure and contractual clause, providing enterprises and individuals with the ability to contract for conciliation and arbitration. The Chamber of Commerce is in the process of developing another arbitration center which will target insurance industries. Within the country private law firms practice arbitration, mediation, and conciliation on an ad hoc basis. This is due to Articles 3 and 4 of the code of civil and commercial procedure which require conciliation as the first step to resolving disputes in the country.[18] Cameroon is also a signatory to ICSID and OHADA, both provide additional resources and rules of arbitration that is available to the commercial industry.
Unlike the progress made in Cameroon, Mali offers a variety of ADR resources for commercial disputes, however they are severely underdeveloped. [19]ADR in Mali should begin to take off with the government’s judicial reform initiative, Program Decennal du Developpement de la Justice and the re-establishment of the an Arbitration Center at the Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie du Mali. This program will increase the promotion of ADR solutions in the judicial system and the creation of new ADR institutions in the country. This will be needed considering that the government has enacted two laws regarding ADR practices, particularly the Code of Investments which requires that all commercial disputes be resolved amicably and if they can’t then they are subject to arbitration; [20]and a decree which authorizes arbitration in relations with foreign investors. [21]The Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie du Mali once offered conciliation and arbitration service for dispute resolution however it is being reformed to model the Arbitration Center in Senegal. [22] Currently private law firms and the Association des Femmes Juristes provide mediation and conciliation services, with the later aimed toward women.
Similarly to Mali, Senegal has enacted several national laws that establish ADR to exist in various sectors[23], but its infrastructure to handle the case load that arbitration brings is shaky. All arbitration rules and regulations must comply with the regulations set out in OHADA, which Senegal is a party to. Even though laws are enacted that establish arbitration as the means of settling disputes, it is still being implemented on small scale. In fact, universities in the country are leading the push to educate the legal and business community about ADR. The Chamber of Commerce, Chambre de Commerce, d’Industrie et d’Agriculture de Dakar (“CCIAD”) , Center of Arbitrage was created in 1998, to provide arbitration services to commercial operators in Senegal. Clients at the Arbitration Center have ranged from national energy companies, to construction companies. Le Mediateur de la Republique de Senegal is a government agency that mediates between the State and individuals or corporations who have issues with an act of the State. Recently the Minister of Justice has decided to open a Mediation Center directed at the commercial sector in the country.[24]
Kenya showcases the ultimate opportunity for ADR progress. The Arbitration Act, 1995, which is nearly identical to the UNCITRAL Model Arbitration Act, governs domestic and international arbitration in Kenya. The Act requires parties who desire to arbitrate to ‘formalize an arbitration agreement in writing, and any disputing parties can enter into such an agreement. The parties select an arbitrator (or an arbitral tribunal) who applies the substantive law of Kenya but controls the procedure and proceedings of the arbitration.” [25] Arbitration in Kenya is also governed by the Arbitration rules. In exercise of the powers under section 40 of the Arbitration Act, the arbitration rules 1997 were made on 6th May 1997. Further, there are arbitration rules formulated under the auspices of the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators to govern arbitral proceedings. The Kenyan Constitution also mandates that “National legislation shall provide procedures for settling inter-governmental [i.e. between national and county governments] disputes by alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, including negotiation, mediation and arbitration. [26]
Notwithstanding pro-ADR developments in the new Constitution and Civil Procedure legislation, Kenya has not yet developed a comprehensive ADR framework or incorporated ADR into the court system in a systematic way. Mediation and arbitration remain useful in Commercial courts and proceedings and in the less formal land dispute resolution bodies. Currently, the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (“CIArb (K)”), Dispute Resolution Centre (“DRC”) and Mediation Training Institute (“MTI”) offer training for mediators as well as mediation services. The Kenya Branch of the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators was established in 1984. It is an umbrella body that oversees, promotes and facilitates determination of disputes by Arbitration and other forms of ADR. The Kenya Branch has about 300 registered members and maintains a register of knowledgeable and experienced Arbitrators and facilitates their appointment.[27] The institute relies on its membership to conduct the arbitrations whenever parties opt to source for an arbitrator through the institution. Kenya is also home to the Dispute Resolution Centre, which is an independent, non-profit organization which promotes the prompt effective and economic resolution of disputes through arbitration and ADR, predominately mediation, expert determination and early neutral evaluation. [28] Currently, more work needs to be done in the country regarding legitimacy of the arbitral institutions and enforcement of awards by the judiciary. However several initiatives within the country have been started to give ADR awareness training for the judiciary, legal professionals and academics. [29]
When country specific initiatives and solutions are not available there are several regional institutions that can provide gap fillers where countries ADR framework is developing and commercial disputes are arising.
Regional Institutions offering Alternative Dispute Resolution Services
African parties involved in commercial arbitration disputes have several options at their disposal depending on the region of the continent. Though these regional institutions are fairly new and have some organizational and legitimacy concerns, they are a step forward in the right direction of providing alternative venues and rules for solving commercial disputes.
Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (“OHADA”), is a supranational organization established by a treaty signed on October 17, 1993. It is comprised of 16 sub-Saharan African member states: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central Africa, Comoros, Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Gabon, Guinea, Guniea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Chad, and Togo. [30]OHADA’s major purpose is to promote regional integration and economic growth and to ensure a secure legal environment through the harmonization of business law among its member states. Once a Uniform Act comes into force by the Council of Ministers it overrides all incompatible national law in the member states. The OHADA Uniform Act on Arbitration was established in 1999, and it authorizes the practice of ADR, lays out the rules of procedure, provides for an enforcement mechanism in member states and created a key regional ADR center: the Common Court for Justice and Arbitration (“CCJA”). The Uniform Act unifies and supersedes the national laws on arbitration of member states. The CCJA has the potential and ability to hear a variety of issues including commercial disputes.
The Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization (“AALCO”) is an international organization with members from 47 States in Africa and Asia. In 1978, AALCO proposed the establishment of Regional Centres for International Commercial Arbitration. [31] Currently there are four Regional Centers: The Regional Centre for Arbitration, Kuala Lumpur, the Cairo Regional Centre for International Commercial Arbitration, the Lagos Regional Centre for International Commercial Arbitration, and the Tehran Regional Arbitration Centre. All centers use the UNCITRAL arbitration rules and aim to provide arbitration facilities of a widely acceptable international standard. All host starts of the Regional Centres are parties of the New York Convention and as such its provision awards may be enforced against a disputing party in other signatory State. Focusing exclusively on the Lagos Regional Centre in Lagos, Nigeria, the center promotes and administers international commercial arbitration. It offers advice and assistance in relation to arbitration, provides other options for settlement of disputes, such as negotiation, mediation, and conciliation. Within the center, the dispute must be of an international character; however the parties in the suit may be individuals, corporate bodies or governments.[32] It case load typically involves disputes arising from the oil industry, but is currently working on diversifying to the solid mineral sector and intellectual property.
East African Court of Justice was established by the East African Community (“EAC”). The East African Community is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising the Governments of Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda with the aim of establishing the East African economic, social, cultural and political integration. Historically these countries have established several trade and customs unions in the region and the treaty in which the EAC is a result solidified the concerted effort of cooperation in the region. The community operates through several organs and institutions established under Article 9 of the treaty, the East African Court of Justice is one these institutions. Established in November 2001, the court operates on an ad hoc basis. It has 10 judges with 2 judges being appointed by each partner state. [33]
The Court has jurisdiction over the interpretation and application of the treaty. It also has arbitral jurisdiction on matters arising from a) an arbitration clause contained in a contract or agreement which confers such jurisdiction to which the Community or any of its institutions is a party; b) arising from a dispute between the Partner States regarding this Treaty if the dispute is submitted to it under a special agreement between the Partner States concerned; or c) arising from an arbitration clause contained in a commercial contract or agreement which the parties have conferred jurisdiction on the Court.[34] This court has the potential of becoming a power house in the region in resolving cross border commercial disputes. It has promulgated its own set of arbitration rules and procedures which vary from other international and regional rules and standards.[35] Currently, the member states as well as people within the region are not taking the potential role of the court seriously. As such, the jury is still out on whether the court will rise to its true potential of being a regional mechanism of dispute resolution. Since 2010, there has been a concerted effort by the members and community to enhance the structure of the court and solidify its presence in the region, this includes working with national legal systems of the member states to prevent the fragmenting of community jurisprudence, allowing East African citizens access to the services of the regional court, better organization within the structure of the court itself, raising visibility of the Court, extending its jurisdiction, and mitigating inadequate human and financial resources. [36]
Africa ADR, is a non-profit, dispute resolution administering authority started in 2009.[37]“Africa ADR is to be the arbitral link between those who invest in Africa, and those who trade in Africa; between the business communities of Africa and abroad and between the international community. Africa ADR will foster the culture of alternative dispute resolution in Africa and will oil the wheels of international trade and commerce.”[38] Initially managed by a multi-national steering committee under the leadership of the Arbitration Foundation of Southern Africa, it provides comprehensive and complete administrative services in the resolution of regional and international disputes by way of arbitration, mediation or conciliation throughout Africa at approved venues. They have established venues at Port Louis, Mauritius; Maputo, Mozambique; and in 3 locations in South Africa at Pretoria, Johannesburg, and Cape Town. They have established a set of different rules and regulations for conciliation and arbitration, this is to ensure that all commercial disputes are effectively administered using the most appropriate dispute resolution method. Similarly to the ICC, a secretariat has been established to deal with the procedural aspects of a party’s arbitration or conciliation. [39] Africa ADR offers a modern, faster, cost effective and less abrasive way of resolving commercial disputes across borders. As seen in other arbitration institutions, language must be used in the contract between parties that subject them to Africa ADR’s arbitration or conciliation rules and procedures.[40]
In addition to the organizations and various treaties listed above, there several other notably treaties and organizations that should be examined when dealing commercially in an African State. This includes the West African Economic and Monetary Union, Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa, African Monetary Union, Southern African Development Community. It is also important that one searches and understands what bilateral and multilateral investment treaties that one might find themselves subject to when doing business in a particular country in Africa and in solving a commercial dispute.
Conclusion
Alternative dispute resolution and arbitration is gaining increasing importance within the continent of Africa. Various countries have begun establishing through their Chambers of Commerce commercial related mediation, conciliation, and arbitration services. Though sometimes lacking in organization and financial resources, these efforts by countries to incorporate non adversarial dispute resolution methods in the country is imperative to increasing foreign and domestic investment. The biggest challenge to the process is finding legitimacy within the current judicial framework especially in countries that have a pluralistic government, incorporating portions of civil, common and customary law. The usage of international arbitration rules such as UNICTRAL and the New York Convention may help heed the fears of enforcement by investors. However it is imperative that the judiciary system within a country are part of the process in order to ensure the success of enforcement and smooth transitions between arbitration, conciliation, mediation and actual enforcement. Only time will tell of how influential and successful ADR methods will be in resolving commercial disputes.
[1] Barthelemy Cousin & Aude-Marie Catron, “OHADA: A common legal system providing a reliable legal and judicial environment in Africa for international investment”, www.ohada.com, Ohadata D-07-27.
[2] “Dispute Resolution in Africa: Questions and Answers,” http://www.internationalarbitrationlaw.com/dispute-resolution-arbitration-africa/, (2012).
[3] Brainch, Brenda, “The Climate of Arbitration and ADR in Kenya”, Paper given to the Colloqium on Arbitration and ADR in African States, Kings College London, (June 2003).
[4] Id. 3
[5] Id. 3
[6] T.Sutherland, and G. Sezneck, “Alternative Dispute Resolution Services in West Africa: A Guide for Investors” A guide sponsored by the Commercial Law Development Program US Department of Commerce, (2003).
[7] Brainch, Brenda, “Justice Sector Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa: Strategic framework and practical lessons”, Dispute Resolution Centre, Kenya, (November, 2006).
[8] D. Kohlhagin, “Alternative Dispute Resolution and Mediation: The Experience of French Speaking Countries” Presentation at EACC Conference: How to Make ADR Work, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
[9] Brenda Brainch, ADR in the world: an African perspective on community mediation (2007).
[10] Owasanoye, Bolaji, “Dispute Resolution Mechanisms and Constitutional Rights in Sub-Saharan Africa,” UNITAR, (2001).
[11] Brenda Brainch’s comment on The UNCITRAL Model law footnote to Article 1,(2003).
[12] Supra at 10.
[13] Kohlhagen, Domink, “How to Make ADR Work in Ethiopia” , EACC Addis Abada, Supra at 8.
[14] Brainch, Brenda, “Justice Sector Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa”, Commercial ADR, Kenya ,(November 2006).
[15] Id 14. S72(1) places responsibility on the Bench and officers of the court to ensure that it is done. Amended Commercial court rules 2004 reinforce this by now compelling parties to a Pre-Trial conference where ADR is applied, outside the court system, and before litigation although terms of settlement are entered as a judgment of the court.
[16] http://baseswiki.org/en/Cameroon.
[17] Supra 8.
[18] No. 2003-009 of 10 July 2003, No. 2007/001 of 19 April 2007, and Law No. 2002/004 of 19 April 2002
[19] Note: Mali is a party to the ICSID, NY Convention, OHADA, and the Code CIMA which could provide avenues for commercial arbitration outside of the national law and judicial system.
[20] Law No. 91-048/AN-RM, 26 February 1991.
[21] Decree 2956 of 15 September 1999.
[22] Supra at 6.
[23] Law No. 87-47, Title XII, Art. 332-339, The Customs Code has provisions for the arbitration of customs disputes; Law No. 97-17, Title VI, Art. 332-339, The Labor Code allows the use of arbitration in settling labor disputes; Decree No. 2002-550 deals with ADR in the Code of Public Markets.
[24] Government of Senegal, http://www.gouv.sn/ (2012).
[25] http://baseswiki.org/en/Kenya . (2009).
[26] §189 (4)]
[27] Chartered Institute of Arbitrators, http://www.ciarbkenya.org/. (2012).
[28] http://www.disputeresolutionkenya.org/
[29] Supra at 14.
[30] Supra. at 6.
[31] For a discussion of the history and purposes of AALCO see its website www.aalco.int.
[32] Supra. at 6.
[33]Establishment and Composition of the East African Court of Justice, http://www.eac.int/eacj.html (2012).
[34] East African Court of Justice, “Strategic Plan: 2010-2015”, (April, 2010).
[35] East African Court of Justice, ” Arbitration Rules of the East African Court of Justice,” http://www.eacj.org/docs/EACJ_Arbitration_Rules.pdf, Arusha, Tanzania, (2004).
[36] Supra. at 9.
[37] www.africaadr.com
[38] Kuper, Michael, Chairman of the Arbitration Foundation of Southern Africa.
[39] For more information regarding the exact language and rules to the AfricaADR, visit Africaadr.org.
[40]Supra at 33.